Factors to Consider When Deciding on Which Market Segment to Venture

Question1(a) Factors to consider when deciding on the segments to serve as a market * Population The density of the people in a given place is a very important aspect to consider when segmenting a market . A densely populated area is usually preferred as a destiny to market the product. * Consumer behaviour How a consumer perceives when purchasing or deciding to purchase a product is very vital. * Social classDifferent consumers have different classes . in this case a seller should consider the class of the various consumers before deciding on which segment to choose or segmenting the consumers into certain target group * Attitude towards the product Different consumers have different perspective about the product in different regions ,consumer’s attitudes about the product in place should be factored in when deciding on the market segment * ReligionDifferent consumers have different religions and in this case some may not consume a certain product based on their religion, a g ood marketer evaluates the demographic and cultural factors before venturing and selecting the appropriate market segment. Question 1(b) Message execution style to capture the target markets attention and interest Packaging style How the goods appear to the consumer influences his/her buying decision ,thus how the labels, container appears determines a lot on how the consumer creates interest in that productBrand name Most consumers have become constituent in in purchasing or consuming certain products and they will always look for these products with the brand name they are used to. Clear descriptions How the product description in terms of how it is used ,its ingredients, determines a lot how that product will capture the attention of the consumers. Shapes and sizes Consumers belong to different classes and how the products are broken down into different sizes and shape determines how that product will capture the attention of the buyer PriceMost consumers prefer a quality product with a reasonable cost ,in this case the seller should consider competitors before setting his/hers price inorder to avoid customer loss through higher prices. Question 2(a) Components of the marketing information systems I. Internal reporting system This involves the records of income ,expenditure, creditor or debtors and consumers II. Marketing intelligence This involves getting information from another different person to get to know whether you are performing in the market or not III.Marketing research This involves identification of a problem and finding a solution to that problem IV. Marketing models This involves the use of time series ,linear programming ,analysis of variance ,progression analysis, sensitivity analysis, in trying how the market operates Uses and functions of public relations to organization a) Used to inform consumers about the new product in the market, through public relation consumers get to know about the new product in the market b) Used to teach the c onsumers on how to use the new product in the market .It is through public relation that the consumers are taught how to use the new product in the market. c) Enables consumers to know where and how to get the organizational goods d) Used in link ling the consumer with the organization thus public relation facilities then bringing of the gap between consumers and the organization Importance of public relation to the organization i) Creates good image of an organization. An organizations image is sustained through public relation. i) Public relations enhances the product awareness that is marketing of organizational product is enhanced iii) Public relations enables the establishment of long and lasting relationship with the consumers iv) Creation of trust about the organizational products by the consumers, due to a close relation by the consumers the organization product will be trusted by the consumers Question 3(. a) Product development process a) Idea generationThe product to be d eveloped is established at this very vital stage ,idea generation can be through archives ,business journals or successful entrepreneurs . b) Idea screening The idea found is measured and its viability weighed before further developments Concept development and testing c) Concept development and screening How to create the product and addition of more features to make the product and testing. d) Business analysis The market is analysed whether the product will fit in the market or not? ) Product development The product itself is then developed that is all the features encompassed to the product and forming the final the product. f) Market testing Product is taken to the market may be taken in samples or the product is fully released to the market g) Communication and adoption After testing the market and finding that it is performing ,large volumes of products are then produced for commercialization 3(b) Methods available to a firm to set their advertising budget Cost analysisA firm considers the various media and avenues to be used and the costs to be associated with each the media to be used should not be too costly to the extent of eating on the profits Market analysis A firm measures the available market and conducts a swot analysis thus a firm will play their advertising budget depending on the competitors ability and the general market competitiveness. Target population A firm will set their advertising budget basing on the geographical area of the targeted population Product natureThe nature of the product will have to be put into consideration when planning for the advertising budget, If the product is highly involved or it is a new product then it requires allocation of more funds. 4(a)Role played by the middlemen in distribution of goods Breaking of bulk Some middlemen may modify the shapes and size of the product into flexible and portable items for ease of transportation or storage. Location Middlemen enable consumers to obtain goods easily by avai ling themselves in strategic places convenient to the consumer. Repackaging of goodsMiddle men pack products into desired packages such as containers Disseminating information Middlemen get first hand information about products from the consumers and submit the data to manufacturing firms for marketing research ,and also giving vital information to the consumers about the product(manufacturer) 4(b)New product pricing strategies a) Cost based strategy A marketer will price the product based on the inputs used when manufacturing the product. b) Competitor based strategy A marketer will price his/her goods based on the price of the competitor goods. c) consumer based strategyA consumer is the king/queen of the market and the marketer will price his goods basing on the willingness and ability of the consumer to purchase that product in that price. d)product based strategy a marketer will price his goods based on the nature of the product Question 5a. major influencers on consumers purch ase behaviour 1. Culture the cultural belief and norms of the consumer will influence his /her purchasing behaviour. 2. Social factors such as the family ,age, occupation will influence a lot on how the consumer will purchase the product. . Personal factors such as the attitude and economic status of the individual will influence his/her decision to purchase a product. 4. Phys logical factors like personal attributes will affect a consumers purchasing behaviour 5b stages in a buyers decision making process for a major purchase a) Awareness a consumer should get to know all about the product he/she wants to purchase b) Interest a consumer then develops the interest for the product. ) Evaluation a consumer will then evaluate the product in questions based on various alternatives d) Trial after a consumer has chosen the right product he/she will then put it on trial e) Adoption if the consumers likes the product he/she will then make a purchase question 6. (a)elements of the promotion mix dvertising Refers to any paid form of non personal presentation and promotion of ideas,goods and services of an identified sponsor personal selling refers to face to face persuasion of a prospective buyer to buy a product publicity refers to a non paid promotion of ideas ,presentation of products and doesn’t necessarily need an identified sponsor sales promotion refers to activities that stimulates consumer purchasing 6b. trategies that can be used in the stages of the product lifecycle a) Introduction stage it is the initial stage of product development and its characterised by low sales ,low profit or nil profit the marketing strategy to be employed at this stage is the promotional strategy. b) Growth stage there is a steady rise in profits ,increased sales and established market share at this stage the marketer can diversify the product to increase its outlook and market stability. ) Maturity stage at this stage the profits begin to decline as there new entrances in th e market strategy to be employed here is diversification or turn around. d) Decline stage here the sales become completely low or none ,profits diminish and cost of production super cedes the revenue the best strategy to approach as a marketer or marketing manager is withdrawal from the market or diversification.

MP3 Player Industry Analysis

Electronic gadgets are very much popular nowadays. Both teens and adults alike are caught up in this technology wave of the present and future. Almost everyone in the US and other first-world countries have mobile phones. Even little kids have one for practical reasons, according to some parents. Yet another electronic gadget that is as popular as a mobile phone is the MP3 player. Since everyone seems to like music a lot, this little electronic device easily captured the hearts of many people around the world. Apple was the company that had big risks yet big hopes in this market when it released its own version of MP3 player called the Apple iPod in 2001. Some were not convinced of Apple’s strategy entering this line of business as the industry was not quite promising that time (Guglielmo, 2001). But even with its price tag on the upper bracket, Apple reportedly has the highest share in the market at about 80% (Skee, 2006). But with the increasing number of competitors in the market offering much more affordable digital audio players, this huge amount of market share will most likely decrease in the years to come. As all knows, technology is something that does not really stagnate at all. MP3 players would not only remain as simple music playing device forever. With continuous engineering and innovation, a third of the MP3 players currently available in the market now have video playing capability. This means that users will not only be able to listen to their favorite music wherever they want, but watch some cool music videos as well. This made a huge impact in the sales of MP3 players since the feature was introduced. Wargo, director of Consumer Electronics Association, (as cited in Slocombe, 2006) stated that, â€Å"MP3 technology helped boost the audio and accessories markets in 2005. With the introduction of video playback capability, MP3 player sales surged 200 percent in 2005 to $3 billion.[†¦]† The figures concerning this industry are really huge considering that this only talks about the US consumers alone. At present, MP3 players still do not lose their charm. Just for the past holiday season, MP3 players topped the survey of 1,000 US adults for their most wanted gift (Ogg, 2006). The device had outdone other popular consumer electronic devices such as digital cameras and portable DVD players. According to CEA (2007), â€Å"MP3 players continue to drive the audio market. [†¦] Thirty-four million MP3 players shipped in 2006 and an additional 41 million are expected to ship in 2007.† The toughest competitor of Apple iPod now is Microsoft’s own Zune which was just introduced in the market late 2006, just in time for the holidays. The two products have been compared by a lot of analysts. Most of the reviews and comparison reports made still think that Apple will be the leading brand in this industry for the next years to come. However, Apple is still in stand by because Microsoft is still Microsoft. Although there are not enough information yet as to how many people already own the new Microsoft Zune nor their current market share, it is well-known that the brand Microsoft itself owns about 90% of the market when it comes to operating systems which is about 300 million people. On the other hand, there are about 30 million people who have an iPod, which is about 70% of the MP3 player industry. (Elgan, 2006) In a nutshell, the MP3 player industry is still a promising and flourishing industry and will continue to increase sales in the coming years. With all the different companies trying to compete and outdo the market starter, Apple iPod still is the leading player in the market since its introduction despite the quite expensive price tag it has. References Elgan, M. (2006). Opinion: Why Microsoft’s Zune Scares Apple to the Core. Retrieved February 22, 2007 from http://www.computerworld.com/action/article.do?command=viewArticleBasic&articleId=9003718&pageNumber=1 Guglielmo, C. (2001). Apple Has Big Hopes for iPod. Retrieved February 22, 2007 from http://www.eweek.com/article2/0,1759,1242682,00.asp Ogg, E. (2006). MP3 Players Top Holiday Wish Lists, CEA Survey Finds. Retrieved February 22, 2007 from http://news.com.com/MP3+players+top+holiday+wish+lists,+CEA+survey+finds/2100-1041_3-6126358.html Skee, G. (2006). US MP3 Player Sales Will Reach $4.5 Billion in 2006. Retrieved February 22, 2007 from http://www.anythingbutipod.com/archives/2006/01/us-mp3-player-sales-will-reach-45-billion-in-2006.php Slocombe, M. (2006). CES 2006 Starts: MP3 Player Sales to Soar 200%. Retrieved February 22, 2007 from http://digital-lifestyles.info/2006/01/05/ces-2006-starts-mp3-player-sales-to-soar-200/

Business and Society Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Business and Society - Case Study Example From this study it is clear that Warhead cables were used in missiles and to prove its quality, it underwent a series of tests. It was tested using an elevated heat test where it was bent at a ninety degree angle and placed in an oven at approximately 105 degrees for seven hours. If the seal did not delaminate, then the cables passed the test. Then Stanton could prepare a detailed report of the test results. In the previous week, a large order came by with a short time period.   On Friday, Stanton tested the batch of cables and two out of the ten tested had a problem. He immediately reported this to Harry who directed him to wait and see if the source inspector could note the problem. Stanton did not like this directive at all as he thought of all innocent civilians out there who would suffer form this unethical behavior. These cables were used in missiles fuses and Stanton was worried sick of a problem arising if these cables were to be used. What if a missile was to fire itself a nd harm innocent civilians? He thought of anyone in the parent corporation that he could contact but to no avail.According to the discussion  Bryson corporation should act ethically due to the dangers they would be exposing civilians into if they failed to act ethically. Considering the warhead cables are used to manufacture switches used in missiles unethical behavior could cost innocent lives in the case of such missiles firing themselves.

Strategic Purpose and Industry Analysis in Tesco Company Essay

Strategic Purpose and Industry Analysis in Tesco Company - Essay Example After the recession of 2008, the revenue of this industry grew every year. This industry of UK helped many small and big retailers to solve their problems. One of the big players of UK supermarket industry is Tesco. It is a multinational company having it's headquartered in Cheshunt of UK. In1919 Tesco was founded by Jack Cohen. It opened its first store in 1929 and from that time the firm expanded its business rapidly. In the UK Tesco has 28% of market share in the supermarket industry. Tesco is experiencing success for a long time. The company has a strong focus on its business and strategies. The vision of the company is to remain constant but changing its business practices and strategies according to the changing world. The firm has major seven types of business strategies which help it to achieve its success. Its vision includes becoming the most valuable business by serving customers and communities with the help of committed and loyal staff and shareholders (Tesco Inc, 2014). It vision also describes that Tesco wants to expand all around the world by using all the opportunities. It believes in the innovation of modern ideas. The mission of Tesco is to become a full formed maintenance company from AMSS Company. The firm’s mission aims to be a wide ranged company providing tubular service. It has a mission of selling mechanized product along with different other products. The values of Tesco contribute a lot to its success and to hold its position in the competitive market. Its business value is to look after the benefit of the customers and treat every one of them equally. The company’s value is involved in every level of its business. Its values let the employees of Tesco know what type of business the company is into and helps its customers to build their expectations.   The strategies of Tesco help in utilizing the resources of the company and achieving its goal. Its short term  and long term growth are based on the company’s strategies (IBISWorld, 2014). Tesco’s strategy involves in building the company as a highly valued brand. For this propose the company develops its own label brands.

Economic Report Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Economic Report - Essay Example As people find gainful employment, they may get married and settle down, or alternatively call their friends and neighbors to the new cities. The engines of economic growth thus provide an impetus for housing as people look for or develop suitable establishments that can be called a home or a place of residence. In turn, demand for housing units signifies that there are economic opportunities in a certain area. It must also be seen that the housing sector itself is a provider of gainful employment to a number of other industries such as masonry, steel, plumbing, water, power and other utilities, painting, upholstery and what not- the list seems endless. Once we have become aware of this, we can truly see the importance that demand and supply for housing units will have and does have on the economy of any nation, including Scotland. This paper is divided into three parts. Part A will present an analysis of the Scottish housing market for the first decade of the new millennium (2000-20 10). It will look at the major factors affecting demand, supply and price of housing units. In the process of analysis, it will also seek to determine whether the housing sector in Scotland is volatile or not and what are the reasons for this. Part B will go on to review specifics regarding the reasons for the ups and downs in the housing sector. Part C will differentiate between factors that are indigenous to Scotland and factors that may affect the whole of the UK housing sector. It will then end with recommendations to be implemented that when done, will hopefully reduce the volatility of the housing market in the UK in general and in Scotland in particular. PART A Analysis of the Housing Market in Scotland (2000-2010) Available data shows that the average number of new housing units established per year in Scotland since the 1980s was 20,000 units; these have however peaked at 25,000 in 2007 and there has been a decline since then to around just 17,000 units in 2010. This declin e was seen in the years 2009 and 2010. The average UK house price was ?163,244 at the end of 2010, with London being the most expensive region in the UK overall, and Edinburgh leading the price rise in Scotland. In Scotland, the average price of a house was ?137,491, indicating a decrease of 2 percent over 2009. Aberdeen City and Aberdeenshire were areas that had recorded a housing demand growth of 4 percent over the year ending December 2010. These areas have benefitted from strong and stable economic opportunities. Conversely Dundee, Angus, Lothian and Falkirk have been the lowest performing areas where demand fell by as much as 3 percent in the 12 months ending December 2010 (Scottish Housing Market Review, 2007 & 2010). Major Factors Affecting Demand, Supply and Price of Housing Units A look at the housing market in Scotland over the last decade (2000-2010) indicates that there have been some major factors affecting the demand and supply for housing units over the stated period. Generally it has been seen that demand for housing units has been spearheaded by the changing demographics in the cities, the economic climate and rates of interest and inflation. The opportunities for employment and living conditions impact upon the rate of migration of people to the major cities, and the number and types of housing units demanded are also dependant

American experience in Vietnam Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

American experience in Vietnam - Essay Example But as it is with politicians they give their citizens what they want to hear. This is what Kennedy was doing to convince his listeners and lure those who were not in his support. The vice president by then, though it took them long to notice and admit admitted that they had been ignorant of all that had happened in Vietnam. All those taking part in war had their own reasons for fighting, but did not include lands, resources nor dominations but freedom was the justice they were seeking in their quest neither did their want to lose their colonies in the southern east Asia. Greed and selfishness is a much greater drive for to those with interest to grab what they want. Being involved in a soviet union war meant that they were not in only in a battle of superiority, but were competing for ideas. Winthrop’s John myth citing the idea of a new America that was godlier would vanquish their numerically stronger enemies. They had dismissed the thought of having a stronger warrior squad that would outdo those of their enemies citing it as ancient. The Vietnam presidents by now relied more on virtue but not power in order to carry the day by winning the war. (Westheider 2008) 2 Industrialization got a boost from the farmers from the eighteenth century. This fueled the power of Americans in terms of their organization, and no other a power could outdo them. This proved that they were militarily invisible and after what took place in Hiroshima it was more evident that they were morally superior but the most powerful country in history. In their mind, they knew nobody could beat them in war even if nations joined to fight against them. This is where they went wrong and so writes Miller Arthur, that he believed in America and believed they had technology till the mid 1960’s when he thought they would never accept defeat as they had technologically advanced. The thought of American’s military being conquered in the battlefield with the advanced technology, grown industrialization and technology ability made them think they would never have been insufficient for war and its purposes. With the Soviet Union exploding a bomb as the Americans were not expectant off. Their aim was entirely to come up with means to fight as they avoided nuclear technology. Its premise was that soviets and their team were to indulge in small wars and without provoking or unlocking nuclear energy. In 1945 as they marked the end of the World War 2, Vietnam was left with vivid memories of subordination caused by Japanese and French authority replacing de facto. The moral lessons were western colonialism wasn’t omnipotent, and no name would replace imperialism as it was all the same from all round and equally dangerous.( Sevy 1989) American both political and leaders in businesses had an agreement that they needed to breathe both life and energy from the world system, and the only country 3that had the capacity to see them done was America. The key role w ould be played by political entrance to enact the law through the help of police men. There was a need for coordination of world affairs in the whole worlds system. Britain withdrew in the 19th century. This made Americans eager on taking on the lead as they believed they were able. Their main task was to restore expansiveness in their economy in their quest to increase their productivity as it was devastated by war. However, the imbalance within the system of the world was the major issue. Despite Americans capitalism being so strong, it didn’t quite matter as that of others countries was too weak. (Dougan,1988) But why all this, there were no raw materials in Vietnam to exploit neither were there strategic interests, it’

History of art-Apadana Palace in persepolis Research Paper

History of art-Apadana Palace in persepolis - Research Paper Example The construction of the palace took thirty years to be complete. We can therefore, consider Apadana Palace as falling in the category of architectural complex, with regard to type of artwork. The materials used in the construction of Apadana Palace include stones and wood. Apart from the overall architectural works, other techniques were also employed in developing Apadana Palace. For instance, there were various carvings as part of the Apadana Palace. Apadana Palace stood to the right of the gatehouse in Persepolis. Overall, most archaeologists estimate that this building could have accumulated close to 10,000 people. The roof of Apadana was supported by enormous stone columns. Of these columns, 36 were interior columns, and another 36 offered support to the building’s verandas that were found on three sides of the building. This is a total of 72 columns. However, presently, only 32 of these columns remain standing. 13 of the destroyed columns still hang in the remnants of this building today. Each of the columns was 20m tall and was topped by an elaborate capital. There are also double-headed animals at the top of the capitals, and these used to support wooden roof beams, which have since been destroyed with time. Leading to the entrance of Apadana were monumental staircase that were well decorated with elaborate sculpture in relief (Iran Chamber Society Web). Nonetheless, judging from the relief sculpture, this could be considered to represent the ceremonial procession that happened when representatives of countries that had been conquered by brought gifts to the King. The Apadana Palace was built by Darius. However, after the death of Darius, the son of Darius; Xerxes completed the construction of the building (Mousavi 17). The Apadana Palace was built in order to serve official purposes in the empire. Persepolis was the ceremonial capital of the Achaemenid Empire; hence this was the right location for

Leadership Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words - 16

Leadership - Essay Example More over, a successful leader and consequent leadership are attributed to sound judgement. The aspect of judgement is fundamental since it depicts the strength and weaknesses of a leader and leadership. Essentially, judgement is effortlessly used to determine and gauge the leaders (Huges, et al, 26). Wise and well-informed leaders are known by the extent of wisdom applied in making judgements. This study attributes that, effective leaders can be born, and other can be natured as long as they reflect and practice the fundamental of leadership. For instance, the â€Å"Action-Observation –Reflection† (AOR) model explains that acquired leadership is attributable to three aspects, which include action, observation and reflection. A leader expresses the actions extended towards certain situation, the observation made and interpretation of the impacts on other people, and personal reflection on the situation (Huges, et al, 26). Personal reflection or evaluation includes lesions learnt, personal view on doing something in a better way and feeling about the situation at hand and the overall application of experience in implementing a new idea. In summary effective leadership is rooted on the listed pillars. Effective leadership has attracted numerous researchers who have researched on diverse methodologies and have come up with diverse opinions. These opinions might be either acceptable or unacceptable meaning of an effective leader and consequent leadership. Fundamentally, numerous subjects or topics of study or research do not have one dimension of thinking. This is similar to leadership. It is relatively easy to reconcile the diverse opinion on the effective leadership than resolve the disparities. In essence, lack of congruence of among leadership researchers is irresolvable but reconcilable (Huges, et al, 76). The diverse perceptions and opinions on effective leadership can be reconciled by examining the common character traits an effective leader either

Undecided Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 5

Undecided - Essay Example In 1641, Massachusetts announced that slavery was legal thus became the first colony to legalize slavery (Lee 14). The Transatlantic slave trade that had begun around 1500 was the major slave supplier to America. New Haven, Connecticut, Massachusetts, and Plymouth adopted fugitive slave law and in 1650, Connecticut legalized slavery. In 1662, Virginia passed a hereditary slavery decree that directed that children of black salves would be bond or freed depending on the condition of their mothers. Maryland legalized slavery in 1663, the same year that slaves in Virginia revolted. In the following year, New York and New Jersey legalized slavery while a law was passed in Maryland illegalizing marriage between white women and black men (Lee 15). Many states passed laws directing that Christian baptism would not change the status of slaves and slaves were not allowed to possess firearms. In states like Virginia, slaves were banned from meeting in large numbers and those who assaulted whites or tried to escape were severely punished. In New York, slaves were not allowed to sell commodities. In 1688, the first formal antislavery resolution was passed in Pennsylvania. Rice cultivation in Carolina intensified slave trade in the state. Some states such as Massachusetts penalized slave masters who freed their slaves. In Connecticut, slaves who disturbed peace or assaulted whites were whipped (Lee 16). Slaves in Rhode Island were required to carry passes when walking at night. In some instances, for instance in Virginia, slave masters were allowed to kill and destroy runaways. From 1711, slave trade started losing popularity in most states. For instance, Pennsylvania and Rhode Island prohibited the importation of black and Indian slaves. Even so, slaves were not allowed to marry or operate businesses without the permission of their masters. Occasionally, slaves got infuriated and revolted killing whites and their captors. In most states, slaves were not

Ip3 training and development Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Ip3 training and development - Research Paper Example Here we can see the four level of evaluation which is reaction, learning, behaviour and results let us look at it one by one. Reaction – At this level, the trainee’s reaction to the training given is analysed. Reaction is important as it gives an insight on how the training was received by the audience. For example, the trainees look content and asking questions means they are receiving information in a better way. As per (GSA, 2014) â€Å"Although participant reactions to training are clearly not the sole indicator of its effectiveness, it is possible that their reactions represent one variable that is part of the larger homological network of variables that influence training effectiveness†. Learning – Here the measure of knowledge gained by the trainee is assessed. How much their knowledge increased can be done with the help of learning objective prepared in advance. For example it can be assessed with the help of questionnaire and role play. As per (Solar, 2013) â€Å"The third level of evaluation answers the question – are they applying what they learned†. Behaviour - Here the change in the behaviour of the trainee due to the training is looked in to. For example, the job of the employees can be observed after the training session as a follow – up measure. Government of South Australia (2014). Good for your business. In http://www.skills.sa.gov.au. Retrieved June 26, 2014, from

Police Strategies Essay Example for Free

Police Strategies Essay The topic I chose to research about is which police strategy/tactic is most effective in reducing crime and disorder. There are various forms of policing such as community-oriented policing, problem-oriented policing, hot spots policing, broken windows theory, and zero-tolerance policing. COP is a model of policing that stresses a two-way working relationship between the community and the police along with the police becoming more integrated into the local community, and citizens assuming an active role in crime control and prevention. POP is a concept created by Herman Goldstein in which he believes the police should take the categories of crime, order maintenance, and service and break them down into discrete problems and then develop specific responses to each one. Hot spots policing originated from research that revealed crime is extremely concentrated in small areas. The broken windows theory is about how crime problems develop at place, and how police should focus their role to stop crime problems from arising. According to Paul M.  Walters, there is a strategy for COP to prevent crime and disorder which is referred to as response to incidents (R2I). R2I requires law enforcement officers to react to crimes or emergency incidents. In order to promote citizen confidence in the police, officers should swiftly respond to any such incidents and establish and maintain control over the situation. R2I also requires officers to respond proactively to crime patterns. This is accomplished through such tactics as directed patrol, targeted identifications, etc. However, if police administrators do not carefully manage the R2I strategy, their departments can quickly be overwhelmed by community demands. In order to manage increased calls for police service, administrators need to monitor demand and then research as many creative ways as possible to respond to these calls. There are many ways to respond to calls for assistance that do not require the immediate dispatching of an officer in a patrol car. Other, less expensive responses may satisfy the request just as effectively. Another way to better serve jurisdictions using the R2I strategy is to invest in current technology in such areas as communications, information, case management and analysis, and transportation which may include automated mug systems, records management and retrieval systems, automated aging systems, and mobile data terminals. Department managers must then use all their resources, both technological and human, in a balanced way that produces not just activity but also results that they can measure against their mission statements. Managing the limited resources of departments to respond effectively to both incidents and calls for service, while producing the greatest advantage for their communities, requires managers to make informed, professional decisions. Foot patrol and Neighborhood Watch programs are two other popular strategies for the effectiveness of COP. A number of evaluations in the 1980s reported that while additional foot patrol did not reduce crime, it did increase feelings of safety. If people are less fearful they might not withdraw from the communities, and the process of neighborhood deterioration might not begin. Neighborhood Watch programs have repeatedly been found to have little impact on crime. Residents who live in areas with more crime, and who live in inner-city minority neighborhoods, have been less willing to participate in Neighborhood Watch programs or any other activities that involve partnership with the police. The effect of whether COP works is hard to say and evidence is very mixed. It’s hard to evaluate since it’s done differently from police department to police department. While a number of questions remain, the future of COP appears bright. According to Paul M.  Walters, the heart of the POP approach is the concept that police must be more responsive to the causes of crime, rather than merely dealing with the results of crime. Maintaining neighborhood safety can be more beneficial to the community than merely treating isolated neighborhood problems. This approach represents a significant shift in how both the public and the police view the role of law enforcement in the community. Problem-oriented policing is a proactive, decentralized approach to providing police services designed to reduce crime and disorder, and by extension, the fear of crime. Department heads achieve this by assigning officers to specific neighborhoods on a long-term basis. Long-term involvement between the officers and neighborhood residents fosters the development of credible relationships based on mutual trust and cooperation. It also allows a high-level exchange of information between citizens and police officers, as well as mutual input concerning policing priorities and tactics for specific areas of the community. Problem-oriented policing also istributes police services more effectively across the community and targets high-crime areas for problem-solving approaches that allow law enforcement to define and deal with the causes of crime. This helps to neutralize the undue influence of special interest groups that can be the recipients of preferred services when no system of community-based priorities exists. Systematic reviews and meta analysis are a method for determining whether POP reduces crime and disorder. A study was conducted by Weisburg, Telep, Hinkle, and Eck. Whether they used a more conservative mean effect size approach or examined the largest effects on crime and disorder reported, they found that POP approaches have a statistically significant effect on the outcomes examined. Importantly, the results are similar whether we look at experimental or nonexperimental studies. The small group of studies in the review allows us to come to a solid conclusion regarding the promise of POP, but it does not allow statistical conclusions regarding the types of approaches that work best for specific types of problems. They think it a major public policy failure that the government and the police have not invested greater effort and resources in identifying the POP approaches and tactics that work best to combat specific types of crime. Moreover, a much larger number of studies are needed to draw strong generalizations regarding the possible effectiveness of POP across different types of jurisdictions and different types of police agencies. The portfolio of available studies does not allow us to draw conclusions about such contextual factors and suggests that U.  S. policing has adopted POP widely without an evidence base for deciding where and when it should be used. The central conclusion of our review is that POP as an approach has significant promise to ameliorate crime and disorder problems broadly defined. Hot spots policing is easier to implement than COP and POP. Research early on showed it had promise in reducing crime. It’s easy to implement as officers are still doing patrol and making arrests. Computerized crime mapping is used in nearly every police department that does hot spots policing. Some programs can do statistical analyses to identify hot spots and find trends in crime across time and space. The programs also can have maps updated with the latest data each day. Studies have found that hot spots policing is at least moderately effective in reducing crime. It’s so hard to know what exactly works because many studies also involve elements of POP and other tactics. The broken windows theory is widely viewed as effective in policing circles after it was used in New York City in the 1990s and the city had a large crime drop. There are several suggestions for how police could best prevent crime with the broken windows theory. Police should return to the order maintenance role. Police should not ignore disorder. Police should negotiate consensus with residents and users of public spaces about what is or is not acceptable in that area. The key is to deal with disorder quickly and not let it untended, and clean it up in areas that have declined. This is hypothesized to prevent fear of crime and maintain social controls in areas such as residents aren’t afraid to intervene and/or move away from the area. Some studies have found increased complaints against the police with the broken windows theory. In conclusion, the research I obtained about the various police strategies and tactics leads to an important statement. Unfortunately, there is no clear answer. There is fairly mixed and weak research evidence about the impacts of these tactics on crime. COP seems effective in fighting fear of crime and improving police-community relations but not in fighting crime. A report by the National Academy reinforces that the most effective strategies and tactics are those that target small locations, take a focused approach, and are highly proactive.

Automation in IT Industry: Uses and Benefits

Automation in IT Industry: Uses and Benefits Automate IT processes Abstract Here is the procedure to analyzing the errors or bugs related to the Project in the IT industry using the automation tools. From this analysis we are able to find the processes of errors caused due to soundness or for syntactical errors Due to this errors the organization is non profitable or losing its profit sales it also lead to downfall of the shareholder values What are the reasons for IT process Automation? This Analysis is very important to the each and every organization to discuss within the company in all aspects of benefits that are achieved through the Automation, key value characteristics should be considered throughout the workflow of automation, and it should be challenged experience to the automation process Overview Now a days IT industry is more Complex than before. Cumulating the number of Apps, Servers , composite scope of Systems, and huge Records: all of this need to be maintained And managed , which is very big difficult task for IT industry in all the aspects like money, manpower.etc.. So Organizations of different Size is looking for an alternative Source which is related to maintain it with more efficiently. In almost all Societies records could be preserved trustworthy and safely. This are all leads to the customized applications As the size of the data increase it implies to the increase on organization administration software and computerization to preserve a reliability in the IT organization with additional professionally to influence on Manpower and increase awareness and retaining of the problematic finish. Monitoring, Ticketing, and change and configuration management are some of the categories for system management product Introduction Why Automation It is used to Save time and manpower it is used to increase efficiency Decrease Mean Time to Repair and increase Mean Biome Between failures man can make a mistake but machine cannot All size of Organizations (Small and Big) are processing there work flow through Automation. It is the best Suitable techniques to increase the Business in all the fields For every Societies a special team of members is organized to maintain the Automation Process This shows the Automation in IT Industry The above scenario shows the infrastructure of IT industry necessary steps to be take part in the growth of Organization Aim To deliver a systematic management solution to the client to procedure with the smooth workflow of an Application Intentions 1. Systematizing the remediation of events and warnings Many of the IT industry have Adopted the advanced technology to have a keen observation on the performance of their growing in IT infrastructures compare to the Other orginisation.There will be a quick alert is produced when any incidents occurred to the infrastructure. When such incidents happened there will automatic solution then and there itself. In IT Automation process, you can automate the remediation of many incidents occurred through: self-initiated, automatic work flow can be done from monitoring tools or manual operator automatic workflow execution through the data center is more faster than the manual process Automatic remediation, like complex servers and infrastructures can be balanced through network load With this system IT infrastructures is secure and safe 2. Authorizing forefront IT professionals to determine additional events Research have been declared that in many of the organizations half of the incident occurred in the infrastructure are estimated beyond the frontline to the notice of the network administrators and management. This incident result to the less productivity and a conference calls to resolve this issue in the personal time as nights, and weekends It Automation process is used to help in transformation of manual big data effect in to sequence and standardized workflows. When an incident happened the workflow automatically imitated compile and execute to the better efficiency. A trigger is automatically starts when the estimated cross the frontline to the knowledge of level 3 administrator 3. Reducing alert abundances There is more chance of Alert happens when IT systems staff concentrate with the alert. They are more active in the alert due to lack the data to know which alert is more active and which is more and just noise. Even a little sound of alert makes the IT staff to be more productive and focus on the critical issue to reduce the noise. Like this IT process automatic initiated to monitor and ticketing product and reaches the frontline operator to take quick action on the alert. The following are the examples for the automation alert in management process: à ¯Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ·Monitoring tool to identify the incident and make a trigger. à ¯Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ · To make the workflow automatically when the trigger and take the appropriate action from the noise alert and create the ticket for the necessary action. Using the trigger frontline operator produce a ticket to resolve the action in this scenario work load is decreased by using this technology. 4. Create a reliable, repeatable procedure for coordinating modification Now a days IT Organizations is supporting large number of applications, servers and devices, as this number can rapidly grow. Among this some of the Organizations have a well format of documentation and consistently change in the process and some does not have a will documentation, and also produce without updating and changes of the previous due to the three will be consistently raise of issue which feel very difficult for frontline operators to resolve and reactive on the productive issue. For the above aspect IT process automation gives the significant and automatic changes in the configuration management process. The set of automation process is imitated by the IT system administrator to check the workflow of application and servers for the status and trigger, network and automation process for updating. This changes is updated to the thousands of application through the servers, create a document according to the requirements. It process tool is used to improve the overall cost efficiency for configuration management previously manual uses automation process for end-to-end changes in the system management product. This lead to the compact and responsiveness. Observing the previous action in the IT automation helps you to react more efficiently for changes in the business needs it also reduce the time of deployment of new infrastructure? An Organization can see a 70 percent of reduction for the new infrastructure 5. Develop relations between ITIL event administration and difficult management procedure It operators goes to a fire-fighting mode due to continuous receiving and resolving hundreds and thousands of alerts a day. They have to react as quickly as possible to the incident and respond to that alert to maintain critical application uptime. However ticket is not generated as soon as the relevant troubleshooting and resolving the alert. IT automation process can be linked to the incident management to the more effective problem management.IT automation let you to quickly react to the alert and trigger according to the action. For example software application can be checked by checking the server status, network status, application build status, and then database status and relocate to the cogent page for the slow productivity and alert, the record is noticed and repaired. If it is necessary the automation process is restarted for triggering. the data is redirected to the server due to insufficient of memory in the server or application issues. Perform data analysis for the input and output. 6. Capture instance determination review paths and generate procedure documentation It automation process create automatically a value according to the automation alert and incident resolving, due to this there will an increase in uptime and let them to focus on the strategic issues. It automation process also capture each and every information automatically for each step of flow. This information is secure and store in the database for the automation product. Automation process automatically create documentation from the automation flow. Each and every flow of step is described in the new created documentation from the created flow. As a result automation documentation is referred to save the time instead of manual document. In this document each and every step is clearly mentioned from alert triggered to the resolution 7. Incorporate role-based contact mechanism into our event determination procedure Many of the IT industry more struggle for exchange of information between2-3 level support. This exchange of information occurred in the middle of night without observing the capabilities of the current state of system If this is properly implemented, the following features in observed automatically: Role-based access control Capture of input and output data Role based access control is used to capture input, output data.so that automation workflow is done automatically as it is atomized as we discussed in the previously Automation process require credentials for the smooth flow of automation steps. Aping is required according to the credentials of the administrator service of proper credentials When this two features are used together as a result in fewer and more escalations. Automation escalation flows only when the frontline operator does not have a proper permissions or when it requires experts operators interest this are more easy as 2-3 level operators can be determined. 8. Capture structural information in a practical and supportable mode Each and every IT organizations is having a very big challenge to other IT industry in all the fields of business in a continue manner. The talent of IT is rated to the uncompleted document and outdated.so IT Organization completely rely on knowledge produced to the incident happened. When the professionals leave the industry they take away the core knowledge with them and leave the Organization to struggle the alerts. With the help of IT process automation, IT process and procedures are implied as automation flows. These flows are managed as current as they constantly execute repair actions. In IT automation process two way of communication is possible with the CMDB it is used to help to create record, discover changes and updated automatically in the infrastructure in this IT processor change automatically. 9. Systematized maintenance processes Automatic trigger should happen at a particular time or at any periodically interval of time. In addition to this key value pair should be matched to trigger the action. This process of trigger action is a time consuming action in manual process, so automation process is better to apply. Action and task are pre-loaded in the system to generate the ticket and resolve automatically Some are the best examples which suit this action: Shutdown, start, restart are scheduled action. Change of password for the security purpose at a regular interval of time Rebooting and configuring setting at a particular service time Refreshing of data at a scheduled time. Due to this intermittently action. You can atomize the section in IT industry as IT automation process. It is executed according to the workflow defined in the process We can trace back the situation happened which is used to generate the report to the operator. This process helps to growth of Organization in the critical scenario of business. 10. Incorporate distinct systems management implements and procedures Management system product is a mixer of partially deployed, and most of them are not well integrated worth the other network system products. Most of the industry runs on Non-homogeneous management products through multiple vendors. In this process IT industry need the support to maintain large size of data center and multiple network operator centers. It also needs the support of the heterogeneous enterprise to their system product. Due to the large size of data centers and network operators, system management product maintained large integrated business enterprise to automate the It process. The combination of management product and process integration leads to the efficient growth and proactive IT organization Conclusion The beginning is very easy. Now you can start up your Automation of data center operations by implementing IT process automation. In few key areas more focus to be applied, a related experienced in IT industry can efficiently achieve to retain the investment and reduce the industry complexity. This can reduce the investment. This also provide more security to the data Bibliography Books: Marshall, C. (2008) The Executive Guide To IT Process Automation: Opalis. Andrzej, C., Abdelsala, H., Marek, R. (1998) Workflow and Process Automation Concepts and Technology : Kluwer Academic Bruno, V., Thecle, A.(1998) Advanced in Production Management System : Springer Paul, H. (2001) Business Process Change A Manager’s Guide to Improving Redesigning and Automation Processes : Edward Wade Arthut, H., Wil, M., Michel, A., Russell, N. (1998) Modern Business Process Automation : Springer – Verlag Berlin Sanjay, M. (2009) Business Process Automation: PHI Learning Ltd Helmut, R., Norbert, P., Wolfgang, S.( (2012) ISSE 2012 Securing Electronic Business Processes : Springer Vieweg Singh, S.K. (2003) Industrial Instrumentation and Control : Tata McGraw Journal Richard, H. (2005) ‘Intellectual Preperty Key Processes for Managing Patent Automation Strategy Need Strengthening’, Report to Congress Committee, 9(1), pp. 22-34 Russell, R. (2001) ‘Reengineering Business Processes Can Improve Efficiency of State Department License Reviews’, Report to the Chairman and Ranking Minority Member US, pp. 10-17 Newspaper Article Naren, K. (2010) ‘ Role of Automation in the Indian IT Industry’, Deccan Chronicle, 30 May, p.11 Website https://www.netiq.com/products/aegis/ http://www.networkautomation.com/overview/ http://blogs.technet.com/b/servicemanager/archive/2009/12/17/demo-extending-service-manager-to-automate-it-processes.aspx http://www.sap.com/solution/lob/it/software/it-process-automation/index.html http://www.computerweekly.com/guides/A-guide-to-business-process-automation-software http://www.slideshare.net/Ayehu/it-processautomationsurvivalguidefreeebook http://kissflow.com/process_playbook/5-reasons-why-you-should-automate-your-business-process/ Terrorism: Definitions, origins, responses and interventions. Terrorism: Definitions, origins, responses and interventions. Chapter One: Defining Terrorism Part One What is Terrorism The Etymology of Terrorism The etymological meaning of the English world terrorism was first adopted in medieval Britain but was first coined in medieval France from the Latin word terrere meaning to frighten (Jeffery 2006: 24). The suffix of ism on the end of the word terror can be constructed as a systematic activity aiming to promote and advance a certain ideological stance. For instance, Marxism argues society can, and will, change when the material conditions are in place to precipitate this change (Marx and Engels 1848: 27). Therefore, because Marxs belief promotes a certain branch of communist philosophy the suffix ism is used to establish his particular ideological viewpoint. Conversely, if one chooses to ignore the political connotation associated with the phrase terrorism, the etymology of terrorism, one could say, is to simply promote the systematic advancement of fear. For example, the parents of a child may simply choose to apply the metaphor of terrorist to personify their expression that their c hild annoy so frequently and unexpectedly that one fears what could come next. Further to this, the etymology of terrorism brings fourth two observations. Firstly, terrorisms rooted meaning has undergone a transformation (the historical context of terrorism will be highlighted later in chapter two, but I will give you a brief outline). Terrorism was first used within the latter part of the ninetieth century as a regime or system of governance, wielded to establish a revolutionary State against the enemies of the people (Williamson 2009: 43). Terrorism, in modern society, is now more commonly used to describe terrorist acts committed by non-state or sub-national identities against the State. In 1848, terrorism in Europe and Russia was originated by its exponents as comprising a kind of action against tyrannical States. German radicalist, Karl Henizen, underpinned the policy of terrorism directed at tyrannical States as he argued while murder was forbidden in principle, this prohibition did not apply to politics, and the murder of political leaders might well be a physical necessity (Laqueur 1980: 27). Henizen was therefore, perhaps, the first scholar to provide a doctrine for modern terrorism. Moreover, when Jacobins used the term terrorism to describe their regime during the French Revolution (1789-1794), it had a positive connotation, whereas now most commentators agree that the term terrorism is inherently a negative, pejorative term (Crenshaw 1989, Barker 2002). Thus, it is evident that the term terrorism has undergone a transformation both in meaning and in perception. The second observation one identifies with in relation to the etymology of terrorism is that since its inception, the term terrorism has been linked to various ideals such as justice, liberty and morality. This idealism continued to be attached to terrorism into the mid-1800s, even though a transition had occurred in the meaning of the term (Kravchinsky 1884: 508). These idealistic principles upon the term terrorism continue today. For instance, many modern organisations, considered as terrorist organisations, have chosen for themselves names which suggest that they are idealistic. One example of this is the terrorist organisation Al Qaeda. The term Al Qaeda roughly translates into The Base which suggests a certain level of moral unity among its organisation. Additionally, the perception that exists between how terrorists see themselves and how the way that others, particularly target governments, see them, can be explained by the well-known phrase one mans terrorist is another mans freedom fight (I will explain different societal constructions of terrorism later on in this chapter as a critique towards defining the concept terrorism). This phrase, therefore, represents the idea that terrorism is a political term and therefore has to be noted that the political, ideological and religious objectives, which have been an integral aspect of terrorism since its inception is what differentiates terrorism from mere criminal violence which has no greater criminal goal in mind and which is carried out for instant gratification (Williamson 2009: 45). Thus, whereas Osama bin Laden is deemed as a crazed killer within western society, among the east, especially parts of Pakistan and the Saudi kingdom he is deemed as a martyr (Gupta 2008: 8). And so, because of this, we need to adopt a politically scientific approach in helping to understand the definition of terrorism. Applying Political Science to help Understand the Definition of Terrorism The modern political usage of the phrase terrorism can be traced back to 1795 (Laqueur 2001: 6). It is reported that Edmund Burke was the first person to use the word in English, in order to warn people about what he called those thousand of hell hounds called terrorist (McDowell and Langford 1992: 87). The word first appeared in 1798 in the supplement of the Dictionnaire of the Academie Francaise where it was politically defined as a systeme, regime de la terreur (a system, reign of terror). The entry that first appeared in the Academie Francaise conjures up numerous observations that suggest that the term terrorism is political in nature. Firstly, it is clear that to any native French speaker, in the phrase systeme, regime de la terreur fear and terror play a predominant role. Therefore, in this respect, the definition of the Academie Francaise is to be taken more or less as equivalent to terrorism in its broadest sense which we were previously speaking about. Secondly, the politic al context regime furthers the argument that the term terrorism is inherently political in nature. And finally, there seems to be a hint of another condition embedded within the phrase that was placed in Academie Francaise, namely that most terrorist activity is carried out by non-private individuals (thus systeme). Therefore, presumably, these individuals were, or aspired to become legitimate rulers of a recognised States. Moreover, it appears that the definition of Academie Francaise solely aims to define rebel or revolutionary violence, rather than terrorism in its contemporary sense. However, it has only been within the last thirty-five years that political science has enlightened us on terrorist campaigns, groups, activities, tactics, motives, finances, State support and trends (Enders and Sandler 2006: 9). This comparative approach towards defining terrorism has taught us much about what is common and what is different among terrorist activity. For example, a majority of political scientists have characterised many European terrorist organisations as fighting communist organisations with a focused Marxist-Lenin ideology, an anticapitalist orientation, a desire to limit casualties, and a need for external constituency (Alexander and Pluchinsky 1992: 27). Over the last few decades, political scientists have furthered these comparative approaches towards the definition terrorism in which they have identified the changing nature of terrorism for instance, the rise of State sponsorship in the early 1980s to the more modern increase in Islamic fundamentalism in post modern society. Political scientists have also analysed the effectiveness of antiterrorist policies in helping to define the term terrorism, but without the need to apply social statistics. Further to this, Wilkinson maintains that political science defines the phrase terrorism by dividing its definition into three distinctive typologies, these include; revolutionary terrorism, sub-revolutionary terrorism and repressive terrorism. The first typology defines the phrase terrorism as the use of systematic tactics of terroristic violence with the objective of bringing about political revolution (Wilkinson 1975: 74). Wilkinson furthers the typology of revolutionary terrorism by characterising it into four major attributes; (1) it is always a group, not an individual phenomenon, even though the groups may be very small; (2) both the revolution and the use of terror in its furtherance are always justified by some revolutionary ideology or programme; (3) there exists leaders capable of mobilising people for terrorism and (4) alternative institutional structures are created because the revolutionary movement must partake action in the political system and therefore must develop its own policy-making bodies and codification of behaviour (Wilkinson 1975: 79). To give a more detailed picture of Wilkinsons typology of revolutionary terrorism towards the political definition of terrorism we should add Hutchinsons list of essential properties, these are; (1) it is part of a revolutionary strategy; (2) it is manifested through acts of socially and politically unacceptable violence; (3) there is a pattern of symbolic or representative selection of victims or objects of acts of terrorism and (4) the revolutionary movement deliberately intends these actions to create a psychological effect on specific groups and thereby to change their political behaviour and attitudes (Hutchinson 1978: 18). The second category in Wilkinsons typology to define the political definition of terrorism is sub-revolutionary terrorism. Sub-revolutionary terrorism is defined as terror used for political motives other than revolution or governmental repression (Wilkinson 1975: 81). Whereas revolutionary terrorism seeks total change, Wilkinson argues that sub-revolutionary terrorism is aimed at more limited goals such as forcing the government to change its policy on some issues, warning or punishing specific public officials, or retaliating against government action seen as reprehensible by terrorist (Wilkinson 1975: 82). Therefore, in this respect, under the typology of sub-revolutionary terrorism pressure groups such as Fathers for Justice and Green Peace may be deemed as terrorist organisations. Wilkinsons third typology, repressive terrorism, is defined as the systematic use of terroristic acts of violence for the purpose of suppressing, putting down, quelling, or restraining certain groups, individuals or forms of behaviour deemed to be undesirable by the oppressor (Wilkinson 1975: 83). Therefore, the political definition of terrorism under the typology of repressive terrorism relies heavily upon the services of specialised agencies whose members are trained to torture, murder, and deceive. The terror apparatus is then deployed against specific opposition groups and can be later directed against much wider groups (Wilkinson 1975: 84). One example of this is Nazi Germany, where the Schutzstaffel (SS), the specialised agency, deployed terroristic apparatus against the opposition group, the Jews. Moreover, the main advantage of applying a politically scientific approach to defining terrorism has been its electric, multidisciplinary viewpoint encompassing historical, sociological, and psychological studies. Historical studies identify common features among terrorist campaigns and indicate how the phrase terrorism has evolved over time. In sociological studies, sociologists analyses societal norms and social structure within terrorist organisations. And, by using psychological studies, researchers have identified internal and external variables associated with the escalation of violence in a terrorist event (Enders and Sandler 2006: 10). Furthermore, some factors, for example, may induce an individual to become a suicide bomber, for example, include sociological the approval of a group and psychological factors personal mentality. Thus, certain fields may interlink to accompany political science in helping to define terrorism. Another field that has helped revolutionised the way we perceive the definition of terrorism is law and to illustrate this point one is about to examine the definition of terrorism under general international law. Defining Terrorism under General International Law Recent interest in the utility or propriety of a definition of terrorism under general international law has been driven by larger issues, such as the need to build international solidarity within the war of terrorism, and the opposing need felt by some of guarding any such possible definition of terrorism from any undue weightage likely to be given to the unilateral belief of any one State, and particularly the meaning likely to be or already given to the term terrorism in the foreign policy of any one State (Hor et al 2005: 37). Therefore, the need to define terrorism, comprehensively, under international law cannot be divorced from such over-riding political concerns which, together with some old diplomatic obstacles, continued to plague the negotiations towards the Comprehensive Convention on International Terrorism in 2005. The rationale behind such a comprehensive treaty to define the phrase terrorism was a response to calls beginning within the 1990s for a departure from a reg ime of variegated subject-specific treaties. The initiative for such a treaty to define terrorism derived from India (United Nations General Assembly 2005: 166). The treaty established the United Nations General Assembly resolution 51/210 of 17 December 1996, which had established an Ad Hoc Committee together with a United Nations Sixth (Legal) Committee, which was tasked with negotiating on the Draft Comprehensive Convention (Reichard 2002: 18). However, one would like to focus upon the question of whether a customary or general international legal definition of terrorism already exists, and if so, what does a customary definition look like. Legal guidance to define terrorism under general international law lies at least as much in international custom as it does under the Comprehensive Convention of International Terrorism treaty. This is partly due to the time-lag that occurred between the completed text-based treaty and widespread participation that took place within the new treaty regime. Moreover, it is due to the fact that much of the new comprehensive definition was not all that new, thus proving the United Nations are a long way off achieving essential combinations of (1) having a precise formation that would necessarily prove useful in defining terrorism and (2) at the same time, attracting the necessary widespread participation of States to make such a comprehensive regime a success (Lim and Elias 1997: 27). State-sponsored terrorism is a good exemplar over what terrorism might be taken to mean in the eyes of general international law. Professor Brownlie concurs with this statement as he maintains that State-sponsored terrorism is governed mainly, if not exclusively, by the available categories of international legal thought such as the prohibition of the use of force in international relations, the doctrine of imputability in establishing State responsibility for acts of the individual and the self-defence doctrine. He argues there is no category of the law on terrorism and the problems must be characterised in accordance with the applicable sectors of general international law: jurisdiction, international criminal justice, state responsibility, and so forth (Brownlie: 2004: 713). However, this may to true insofar as international law has not yet evolved to encompass an agreed definition of terrorism, the various subject-specific rules of international law which focus on individual criminal responsibility for different acts of terror such as hijacking, terrorist financing, and so on, can neither be insulated from nor absorbed wholly by the currently existing international law rules which may be brought to bear on State-sponsored terrorism. Several States leading up to the Rome statute, for example, viewed terrorism, under international law, as a distinct criminal event which imposes individual criminal responsibility for State-sponsored terrorism. In this respect, the definition of terrorism differs when defining the phrase terrorism under State-sponsored terrorism and from what the definition of terrorism means under the International Court of Justice. For example, in the Nicaragua case, Nicaragua had brought a claim against the United States for alleged covert support given by the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) to armed insurgents operating in Nicaraguan territory in response to the Sandinista Governments covert support of the Farabundo Marti National Liberation Front in El Salvador. The issue was that there were interstate in international law rules pertaining to breach of the United States legal responses owed to Nicaragua by allegedly financing, supporting, equipping, arming, training and providing strategic guidance to Nicaraguan rebels seeking to overthrow the Sandinista Government (McCoubrey and White 1995: 12). In short, the case of Nicaragua was about defining the phrase terrorism through state responsibility and not solely as a means of political violence. On the other hand, Professor Mani recently suggested that what we call terrorism today is, in fact, very much state-sponsored terrorism. This, he suggests, is a direct result of the prohibition in Article 2(4) of the United Nations Charter of the use of the force in international relations, which would nonetheless attract individual responsibility for such acts. Therefore, the legal definition of terrorism may be seized by the figure of Osama bin Laden, and we may be startled that by the late twentieth century the only superpower in the world was required to go to war with a mere individual, but that does not change the fact that, for the most part, the definition of terrorism is closely linked to state-sponsorship (Murphy 1999: 161). The difference, therefore, between Professor Manis and Professor Brownlies viewponts is one that has marked debate among the social sciences for a number of years. For example, a majority of scholars adopt Brownlies viewpoint that the definition of terrorism, especially State-sponsored terrorism, is solely a product of individual extreme criminality. But we must not ignore Manis argument that the definition of terrorism under State-sponsorship, which has become an ongoing growing phenomenon, and has become a powerful focal-point for advocating the plight of the Palestinian people, for example. Therefore, in a world where we have learnt to view some States as rogue or parish, calling States such as Israel a terrorist State serves to highlight the Palestinian cause, and stigmatise the perceived wrongdoer all at the same time (Jansen 2001: 47). Thus, by defining the phrase terrorism under the use of general international law no one can pinpoint a precise definition of the phrase terrori sm as the word itself is unattainable. To further this discussion one will now begin to highlight the problems associated with defining the phrase terrorism in which one will begin by examining terrorism as a moral problem. Part Two Problems in Defining Terrorism Definition of Terrorism as a Moral Problem A major stumbling block towards defining terrorism is that, at base, terrorism is a moral problem. This is, therefore, one of the major reasons for the difficulty over defining of terrorism. Attempts at defining the phrase terrorism are often predicted on the assumption that some classes of political violence are justifiable whereas others are not. Many would label the latter as terrorism whilst being loathe to condemn the former with a term that is usually used as an epithet. So, in order, for a definition to be universally accepted it must transcend behavioural description to include individual motivation, social milieu, and political purpose (Wardlaw 1989: 4). The same behaviour will or will not, therefore, be viewed as terrorism by any particular observer according to differences in these other factors. However, if the definition is to be of use to a wider audience than the individual who constructs it, students of violence will have to try and divest themselves of the traditiona l ways of its definition. Just as an increasing number of commentators seem to be able to even-handedly apply the term terrorist to non-State and State actors they will have to apply it even-handedly to those groups with whose cause they agree and those with whose cause they conflict (Wardlaw 1989: 4). The difficulty here is, however, is that different groups of users of definitions find it more or less easy to utilise definitions which focus on behaviour and their effects as opposed to these factors tempered by considerations of motives and politics. Thus many academic students of terrorism seem to find it a little difficult in labelling an event as terrorist without making a moral judgement about the act. Furthermore, many politicians, law enforcement and governmental officials, and citizens find themselves unable to take such a detached view (Wardlaw 1985: 4). For this reason, it may not be too difficult to construct an acceptable definition within this given reference group, but the problem arises when each group attempts to engage into dialogue with each other. This communication problem is of more than academic importance. This is because it is one of the root causes of both the vacillations in policy which characterises the response of most individual states to terrorism and of the complete failure of the international community to launch any effective multi-lateral initiatives to combat the problem (Wardlaw 1989: 5). Therefore, those who study terrorism within any given community often cannot communicate with the policy-makers and law enforcers because the latter groups often reject the analytical techniques of the former as being of insufficient relevance to the real world. This is partly due to the latter groups seeing the lack of relevance as an inability to distinguish between right and wrong acts. Moreover, at an international level, political support given to sectional interests militates against a universal definition that could form the basis for international law and action (Wardlaw 1989: 5). Thus, for example, the Palestine Lib eration Organisation (PLO) is seen by some nations as a terrorist group having no political legitimacy and using morally unjustifiable methods of violence to achieve unacceptable ends. Conversely, other nations deem the actions of the PLO as acceptable legitimate representation of opposed people using necessary and justifiable violence (not terrorism, one needs to emphasise) to achieve a just and inevitable end. Therefore, the problem within defining the phrase terrorism rests upon moral justification. However, in order to further illustrate ones argument into the problems of defining terrorism one needs to seek to explain such a phenomenon, and not solely justify the problems in defining terrorism wholly on moral justification. And so, in this respect, we need to assess the identity of terrorism in order to seek the problem of its definition. Difficulties in Defining Terrorism Due to Identification Another factor that deserves to be noted within the process of identifying the problems associated with defining the concept of terrorism is identification. The reasoning for this is down to the fact that identification is key to its rhetorical success. Thus, an act will become to be seen as terrorist if people identify with the victim of the act. One example of this is the role of media in reporting terrorism. To explain, the media tend to portray terrorist acts as newsworthy because it acts as an instrument of legitimation. Other example of this happening are within areas of muggings, environment crime, and white-collar crime. Therefore, if the identification of the terrorist act, in the perpetrators eyes, is positive the implication for official regimes becomes positive. Take State-sponsored terrorism as an example, if such States are industrialised societies than industries are active participating actors within the official terrorist regime. Furthering the example, because State -sponsored terrorism usually involves bureaucracy (police, armed forces, intelligence agencies, secret police, immigration control, and information control) it becomes the administration of terror thus identifying the definition of terrorism as a positive outcome. Moreover, Thornton describes the identification of terrorism as a problem of its definition by suggesting its a process of disorientation, the most characteristic use of terror (Thornton 2002: 86). However, it is important to emphasise that in Thorntons quotation of terrorism he places emphasis on terrorisms extranormal quality. Firstly, one would like to highlight the use of terror in Thorntons quotation is solely placed within the upper levels of the continuum of political agitation and therefore is not representational of terrorism as a whole but only political motivated terrorism. Furthermore, Thornton is placed with the difficulty of defining extranormal a difficulty which is not resolved throughout his argument. One maintains that it would be more productive to seek other ways by which the identification of the definition of terrorism could be more distinguishable from other forms of crime, for example, muggings both of which have the effect of producing State terror in the v ictim. One way terrorism can be distinguishes from other forms of crime is that it has an audience wider than the primary victim, although, the same can be said about muggings. For instance, if a number of muggings take place in certain location, intense fear will be engendered in many other individuals who have cause to be or in the same places. The identifiable feature, that distinguishes terrorism to other forms of crime, therefore, is the design to create anxiety rather than the extranormality of the anxiety, which Thornton discussed. Terrorism is further characterised by its highly symbolic content. Thornton contends that the symbolic nature of terrorism contributes significantly to its relatively high efficacy. Thus; If the terrorist comprehends that he is seeking a demonstration effect, he will attack targets with a maximum symbolic value. The symbols of the State are particularly important, but perhaps even more are those referring to the normative structures and relationships that constitute the supporting framework of society. By showing the weakness of this framework, the insurgents demonstrate not only their own strength and the weakness of the incumbents but also the inability of the society to provide support for its members in a time of crises. (Thornton: 2002: 91) To further the claim that the problem in defining the phrase terrorism is down to identification we must strengthen Thorntons argument by introducing two terrorist approaches, these are enforcement terrorism and agitational terrorism. A Tale of Two Terrorist Approaches Enforcement Terror and Agitational Terror Within Thorntons broad definition of terrorism, he has distinguished two categories of how terrorism can be defined. These are through the uses of enforcement terror and agitational terror within terrorist activities. The first approach, enforcement terror, is used by those in power who wish to annihilate challenges to their authority, and the second approach, agitational terror, describes the terroristic activities of those who wish to disrupt the existing status quo and ascend to political power (Thornton 2002: 117). For instance, Nazi Germany and Stalin Russia can be said to inhabit examples of enforcement terror as each government would use fear tactics such as the murder of their citizens to shock them into not establishing a rebellion. Whereas, it could be argued that some socio-political groups such as the Irish Republic Army (IRA) use agitational terror such as the bombing of public places in order to achieve political power. Similarly, May (1974: 285) also observed a divide into the broad definition of terrorism, he theorises these as; the regime of terror and the siege of terror. The former, May refers to, is terrorism in service of establishing order, while the latter refers to terrorism in service of revolutionary movements. May accedes that the regime of terror is more important of the two but also notes how the siege of terror is also what grips societys attention, as May states revolutionary terrorism, derivative and reflexive though it may be, exposes a level of perception into the universe of killing and being killed that may be even more revealing than state terrorism (May 1974: 290). The argument May puts forth about the regime of terror versus the siege of terror is in fact one of the most interesting puzzles of anyone studying terrorism to come to grips with as most commentators and scholars often focus their attention on the insurgence of terrorism rather than the incumbent nature of terrorism. There are a number of apparent explanations for this. Firstly, one of the hallmarks of insurgence terrorism is that it is dramatic and thus newsworthy. The reason why insurgence terrorism is newsworthy is that it is atypical in nature, it can be addressed stereotypically, and it can be contrasted against a backdrop of normality which is largely overly-typical (Cohen and Young 1981: 52). Thus, when terrorism becomes institutionalised as a form of governance it makes headlines less often simply because it has less news value than a high jacking of an airliner. Another reason for the lack of attention paid toward what May called the regime of terror may be traced back to t he processes of constructing social realities. To explain, the portrayal of official terrorists as rational beings compared to the lunatic and out-of-control nature of the individual terrorist encourages the mass of society to see the threat to their physical and psychic integrity coming from the latter direction (Reddy 1998: 163). Many academics adopt this notion that while states that enforce a regime of terror may be undesirable, the immediate fear from society perhaps mostly from imagery projected into the public persona from the mass media is individual terrorism. It is this component of uncertainly that plays a large part here. For instance, state terrorist activities may be brutal and unjust (Chomsky 2005: 185), but, in general, one knows what activities not to indulge in in order to escape its immediate and person intrusion. Moreover, it also has to be noted that individual terrorism by contrast bears no necessary relation to ones own behaviour. It appears random and dangerous. Here again we hear the echoes of the impact the media has on reporting such events. Furthermore, it must be remembered that many states currently experiencing terrorism are authoritarian states that exert to some extent control over what the news reports. In said cases, therefore, the media can hardly castigate authoritarian go vernments for their excesses thus fearing reprisals such as license cancellation but they can, and do, bring the threat of terrorism by small groups and individuals into the homes of the masses. The view of terrorism therefore is fostered of a society plagued by dangerous extremists damaging the fabric of everyday life and threatening the sate whilst ignoring the greater damage that is being perpetrated as a result of government policies and action plans. However, it is of course much easier to focus greater emphasis on a specific perpetrator than on one amorphous system. There is, therefore, are some sensible practical reasons for the reluctance of scholars studying the phenomenon of state terrorism. For instance, Gloom noted; Historians find it difficult to think themselves into the mores of Robespierres or a Stalins regime of terror and it is dangerous to conduct field research in contemporary regime of terror. It is far easier to conceptualise the use of terror as a weapon to achieve a specific goal rather than a form of a regular and normal government (Gloom 1978: 73) Further to this, the only systematic effort develop general theory of terrorism based on an analysis o

Aristotle And Concept Of Happiness Philosophy Essay

Aristotle And Concept Of Happiness Philosophy Essay In this paper, I wish to explore the concept of happiness as well as Aristotles take on it. I think for most of us, we rarely stop and think about what happiness is even though we cannot deny its inevitable existence. It is one of my major points that everyone has a different definition of what happiness is or what happiness means to them, and that definition changes along with time, when ones personal believes or opinions or convictions change as he progresses through life, they change because of a myriad of reasons, no social scientists can pin down exactly what they are but those changes are nevertheless very real and a direct correspondence of the direct interaction between the person and his or her environment. Aristotle proposes that the single idea of good must establish these three claims: Idea of Good Claim 1) We have ends which we choose for themselves. Idea of Good Claim 2) That there is only one such end. Idea of Good Claim 3) That end is happiness. He argues for Idea of Good Claim 1) as follows (Irwin 173): 1.1. If we choose everything because of something else, desire will be empty and futile. 1.2. We have a gut feeling that some desires are not empty and futile. 1.3. Therefore, we do not choose everything because of something else. 1.4. Therefore we choose something for its own sake. 1.5. What we choose for its own sake, therefore, must be the best good. The debatable premise is 2. As this is not conflicting with my own gut feelings, we will allow Aristotle postulate this claim. Postulate 1: We have a gut feeling that some desires are not empty and futile. Granting him this postulate, we allow his conclusion 5. that there are some things we choose for their own sake. This satisfies Idea of Good Claim 1). Aristotles criteria for the Idea of Good are self-sufficiency and completeness. Regarding these criteria he says, not all ends are complete. But the best good is apparently something complete. And so, if only one end is complete, the good we are looking for will be this end; if more ends than one are complete, it will be the most complete of these ends. (Irwin 7) Aristotle has not given good reason why there must be only one end from which all actions are a means, rather than several such ends. At this point I will not contend with Aristotle if he can posit this singularity and avoid contradiction further into his theory. Postulate 2: There is only one Idea of Good. Aristotle explores and finds happiness to be the best fit for these criteria of the Idea of Good. We must pause for a moment to clarify the translation of eudaimonia, translated to happiness in the text. In Greek, eudaimonia translates to living well or doing well, Happiness is the complete end [ones] complete happiness depends on himself, and not on external conditions. (Irwin 333) Regarding happiness as the single Idea of Good Aristotle says, Now happiness, more than anything else, seems complete without qualification. For we always choose it because of itself, never because of something else. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦The same conclusion also appears to follow from self-sufficiency. For the complete good seems to be self-sufficientà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ We hold an end to be self sufficient when all by itself it makes a life choiceworthy and lacking nothing; and that is what we think happiness does. (Irwin 8) Aristotle makes a good argument here for why happiness is the Idea of Good because he appea ls to ones intuition. My own intuition does not conflict with Aristotles proposition that eudaimonia is the most complete and self-sufficient end, to which other human objectives are means to. Aristotle has satisfied Idea of Good in Claim 3) if we allow him to postulate the first two claims. Aristotle has solidified his claim that eudaimonia is the Idea of the Good by satisfying the three claims. With this information, we progress to investigate which of the three types of lives reaches eudaimonia the best. Aristotle claims that the life of activity and reason achieves this goal best, and denies two alternatives: the life of gratification and the life of ambition. Aristotle argues that happiness is not a state or possession, but rather an activity that we engage in. Aristotle proposes that someone who is asleep for their entire life could not be eudaimonia. This is consistent with the definition given earlier of eudaimonia. Just as the function of a harpist is to play the harp, and the function of the physician is to care for the body, the function of the human being according to Aristotle is to remain active and employ reason in ones life. Aristotle contemplates the human function saying, we take the human function to be a certain kind of life, and take this life to be activity and actions of the soul that involve reason. (Irwin 9) He denies that the human function is bodily pleasure because those qualities are shared with animals. Aristotle claims our purpose must be a life of active contemplation, saying, The remaining possibility, then, is some sort of life of action of the part of the soul that has reasonà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ we take the human function to be a certain kind of life, and take this life to be activity and actions of the soul that involve reason. (Irwin 9) Aristotles argument for activity holds for our own time, people who remain active appear to be happier than those who can no longer be, such as the elderly. However, activity involving reason may be too narrow of a definition. One viable alternative is productivity in whatever respect one is capable of. Aristotle is confining his alternatives of what constitutes a good life to his own talents, rather than allowing people with other dispositions to also live eudaimonia. The life of gratification focuses on sensory pleasures as the means to happiness. Aristotle denies that pleasure is necessarily a good, and pain is necessarily an evil. He separates goods into two types, conditional and unconditional. He argues that pleasure is conditionally good for us because we have the pain corresponding to it. For example, hunger is a pain that is satisfied by eating food. Aristotle argues that bodily pleasures are only good under the condition that the corresponding pain is present. Any further pursuit of bodily pleasures to Aristotle is a pursuit of the excess and such pleasure is no longer a good. Reciprocally, the existence of pain in small amounts can be enjoyable as well as it gives us an occasion to satisfy it. Thus, those who live for bodily pleasure, the life of gratification, are not pursuing the most complete good but rather pursue an excess of bodily sensation. Aristotle admits that we all enjoy and are just in enjoying a degree of sensory gratificat ion, but he renders base those who overindulge. The ambitious life is one focused on attaining honor and acknowledgement from others. Aristotle denies this as a viable means to attain eudaimonia because it focuses on the opinions of others. Eudaimonia is a state which should not be so fickle and easily lost as public opinion, and thus Aristotle discards this option, saying, This, however, appears too superficial to be [eudaimonia]; for it seems to depend more on those who honor than on the one honored, whereas we intuitively believe that the good is something of our own and hard to take from us. Further, it would seem, they pursue honor to convince themselves they are good. (Irwin 4) This is a convincing denial of pursuing a life of ambition. I accept an assumption Aristotle makes that living well is not constituted by the opinions of others, but rather by the virtue of oneself. So far we have accepted Aristotles premise that activity is needed to reach eudaimonia, but we have questioned the necessity for study. We have accepted Aristotles denial of the two alternative lives, as they focus on either overindulgence or public opinion. Due to space constraints we will not discuss the possibility of other lives, though there are plenty worthy of mention. One means that Aristotle proposes to remain active is having loving friendships. Aristotle offers loving friendships with good people as the most complete friendship, saying, complete friendship is the friendship of good people similar in virtue; for they wish goods in the same way to each other insofar as they are good, and they are good in their own rightThese kinds of friendships are likely to be rare, since such people are few. (Irwin 122-123) Complete friendships cannot be based on utility or erotic pleasure, but rather love. Aristotle says, Those who are friends for utility dissolve the friendship as soon as the advantage is removed; for they were never friends of each other, but of what was expedient for them. (Irwin 123) Aristotle proposes that a life of friendship facilitates activity, because we are social creatures by nature. A life involving study and contemplation, for example, serves as a medium to foster a respect and exchange of ideas, which is inherent in a loving friendship. In addition, we can expand Aristotles conclusions to apply to other means of remaining active, such as a life of military service, the life of a physician, or the life of an artist. In addition, friends help regulate our behavior in making virtuous decisions, as virtue is also a vital component of reaching eudaimonia. Aristotle says, no one would choose to live without friends even if he had all other goods. Indeed rich people and holders of powerful positions need friends, how else would one benefit from such prosperity if one had no opportunity for beneficenceà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ But in poverty also and in other misfortunes, people think friends are the only refugeà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦The young need friends to keep them from error. The old need friends to care for them and support the actions that fail because of weakness. (Irwin 119) Aristotle is correct in finding that activity is a vital element in achieving eudaimonia, and that friendship plays an important role in helping us remain active and virtuous. We can apply a broader application of this search for happiness by allowing lives other than that of study and contemplation to be pursued, as long as virtue and loving friendships are present. To arrive at this conclusion we postulated two of Aristotles premises (see Postulate 1 and Postulate 2); allowing these lead us to a worthwhile map of how one may reach eudaimonia, the Idea of Good which follows from the postulates. Overlaying a life of productivity for Aristotles requirement of study, we have achieved a valid argument, assuming the postulates, for a means of human flourishing. One should live ones life with virtue, activity, and productivity.

Seeking Harmony as a World Citizen Essay -- Personal Narrative Essay E

Seeking Harmony as a World Citizen "Excuse me, do you speak German?" - outside of that church's organ recital in Bonn, Germany, the distinct Japanese accent caught me by surprise. My weeks of study and internship gave me new confidence, so I answered, "Yes, yes I do." The Japanese woman's companion, seeing my nod, immediately began to overflow with German praises. I looked at her, elderly, in a wheelchair, and she told me the story: that music-loving Japanese woman pushed that music-loving German woman out of the church, medieval in design and thus not disabled-friendly. "What generosity," I translated in my native tongue, the only go-between these women had. "A million thanks for your help, I couldn't have made it out without you." The Japanese woman nodded, understanding, but her only reply was, "Does she need me to take her somewhere else?" "No, no, and thank you - God bless," I translated. The German woman smiled, grabbed her hand, kissed it. She grabbed my hand, kissed it too, and wheeled away over the cobblestones. Awestruck, I smiled to the Japanese w...